Heat and Thermodynamics — Key Discoveries

Key Discoveries

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (Fowler-Guggenheim Formulation)

1931

Though implicitly understood earlier, Ralph H. Fowler and Edward A. Guggenheim formally articulated the Zeroth Law, providing a rigorous basis for the concept of temperature and…

First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy)

Mid-19th Century (Joule, Mayer, Helmholtz)

Developed independently by several scientists, notably James Prescott Joule, Julius Robert von Mayer, and Hermann von Helmholtz, the First Law formalized the principle of energy…

Second Law of Thermodynamics (Clausius, Kelvin-Planck)

Mid-19th Century (Clausius, Kelvin, Planck)

Formulated by Rudolf Clausius (introducing entropy) and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and Max Planck (Kelvin-Planck statement), the Second Law defines the direction of spontaneous…

Third Law of Thermodynamics (Nernst, Planck)

Early 20th Century (Nernst, Planck)

Developed by Walther Nernst and later refined by Max Planck, the Third Law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero (0 Kelvin) is zero. This implies that…