Non-renewable Energy
The Constitution of India, through its Directive Principles of State Policy, lays down the foundational ethos for resource management. Article 39(b) states that 'the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good.' This principle guides the legislative framework governing non-renewable energy resources, ensuring their equitab…
Quick Summary
Non-renewable energy sources are finite resources formed over geological timescales, primarily comprising fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium, thorium). These sources currently dominate India's energy mix, with coal alone accounting for over 70% of electricity generation (IEA, 2023).
India possesses substantial coal reserves (approx. 361.41 billion tonnes, MoC 2023) and significant thorium reserves, underpinning its energy strategy. However, domestic oil and gas production is limited, leading to over 85% import dependency for crude oil and 50% for natural gas (MoPNG, 2023-24), posing significant energy security challenges and economic vulnerability to global price fluctuations.
The extraction and combustion of fossil fuels are major contributors to air pollution (PM, SOx, NOx), greenhouse gas emissions (India's energy sector contributed ~2.7 GtCO2 in 2022, IEA), and local ecological damage.
Nuclear energy, governed by the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, offers a carbon-free alternative, with India pursuing a unique three-stage program to leverage its thorium potential. Policy frameworks like the MMDR Act, 2015, and HELP, 2016, aim to regulate resource extraction and promote domestic production.
The ongoing challenge for India is to balance its growing energy demand and economic development with environmental sustainability and climate change commitments, necessitating a strategic transition towards a cleaner energy future while ensuring energy security.
Full explanation
Non-renewable energy sources form the backbone of India's energy economy, driving industrial growth and meeting the bulk of its electricity demand. However, their finite nature and significant environmental footprint present a complex policy challenge, demanding a nuanced understanding for UPSC aspirants.
1. Origin and History of Non-renewable Energy
Non-renewable energy sources, primarily fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium, thorium), are products of geological processes spanning millions of years. Fossil fuels originate from the anaerobic decomposition of buried organic matter.
Coal formed from ancient terrestrial vegetation in swampy environments, while oil and natural gas typically formed from marine microorganisms in sedimentary basins. The discovery and widespread use of coal during the Industrial Revolution marked a paradigm shift, powering steam engines and factories.
Petroleum gained prominence in the 20th century, revolutionizing transportation and industry. Nuclear energy, harnessing the power of atomic fission, emerged in the mid-20th century, offering a concentrated, carbon-free power source.
2. Constitutional and Legal Basis in India
India's approach to non-renewable energy is guided by a robust legal and policy framework:
- Article 39(b) of the Constitution — As a Directive Principle of State Policy, it mandates that the ownership and control of material resources of the community are distributed to best subserve the common good. This underpins state control over mineral resources.
- Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2015 (MMDR Act) — This Act is pivotal for the mining sector. It introduced competitive bidding for major minerals, established the District Mineral Foundation (DMF) for local area development, and the National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) to promote exploration. It aims to bring transparency and efficiency to mineral allocation.
- Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 — Following the Supreme Court's cancellation of 214 coal block allocations, this Act facilitated the re-allocation of these blocks through transparent auctions, ensuring continuity in coal production.
- Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board Act, 2006 — Established the PNGRB to regulate the downstream sector of petroleum and natural gas, ensuring fair trade practices and consumer protection. It plays a crucial role in gas pipeline infrastructure and pricing mechanisms.
- Atomic Energy Act, 1962 — This Act grants the Central Government exclusive powers over atomic energy, including exploration, mining, processing, and use of prescribed substances (uranium, thorium). It forms the legal basis for India's nuclear power program.
- Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 — This overarching environmental legislation provides the government with powers to regulate industries, including energy projects, to prevent and control pollution, mandating Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and clearances for new projects.
- National Mineral Policy 2019 — Replaced the 2008 policy, aiming for greater transparency, better regulation, and enforcement, while balancing mining with environmental protection. It emphasizes sustainable mining practices and encourages private investment in exploration.
- Coal Distribution Policy — Governs the allocation and distribution of coal, aiming to ensure equitable supply to various sectors, particularly power and steel.
- New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) / Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) — NELP (1997) offered a uniform licensing regime for exploration and production of hydrocarbons. HELP (2016) replaced NELP, introducing a revenue-sharing model, uniform licensing for all hydrocarbons (conventional and unconventional), and marketing and pricing freedom for crude oil and natural gas. This is a significant reform to boost domestic production.
3. Key Non-renewable Energy Sources in India
A. Coal
India possesses the 5th largest proven coal reserves globally. It is the second-largest producer and consumer of coal. Coal accounts for approximately 55% of India's primary commercial energy supply (IEA, 2023) and over 70% of electricity generation.
- Classification by Rank (Calorific Value & Carbon Content):
* Anthracite: Highest carbon content (86-97%), highest calorific value (~8,000-8,500 kcal/kg). Hard, brittle, shiny black. Found in small quantities in J&K (Kashmir Valley). * Bituminous: Most common type (45-86% carbon), high calorific value (~6,000-8,000 kcal/kg).
Used for electricity generation, coking coal for steel. Major reserves in India. * Sub-bituminous: Lower carbon content (35-45%), moderate calorific value (~4,000-6,000 kcal/kg). Used for power generation.
* Lignite: Lowest rank of coal (25-35% carbon), low calorific value (~2,500-4,000 kcal/kg). Brown, soft, high moisture content. Significant reserves in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat. * Peat: Precursor to coal, partially decayed organic matter (<25% carbon).
Very low calorific value, high moisture. Not considered true coal.
- India-Specific Details:
* Reserves: Total proven reserves: ~361.41 billion tonnes (as of April 1, 2023, Ministry of Coal, GoI). Gondwana coal (bituminous) accounts for over 98% of reserves, mainly in the Damodar Valley (Jharkhand, West Bengal), Mahanadi Valley (Odisha), Godavari Valley (Telangana, Maharashtra), and Son Valley (Madhya Pradesh).
* Major Coalfields: Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro, Karanpura (Jharkhand); Talcher, Ib Valley (Odisha); Korba, Singrauli (Chhattisgarh, MP); Singareni (Telangana); Neyveli (Tamil Nadu - lignite). * Production: India's coal production reached 997.
25 Million Tonnes (MT) in FY 2023-24 (Ministry of Coal, GoI), aiming for 1 billion tonnes by FY 2025-26. * Consumption: Dominated by the power sector (thermal power plants), followed by steel, cement, and other industries.
India imports coking coal for its steel industry.
B. Petroleum and Natural Gas
India is the world's third-largest consumer of crude oil. Domestic production meets only a fraction of demand, leading to high import dependency.
- Conventional Resources — Formed in traditional geological traps.
* Major Basins/Fields: Mumbai High (offshore, largest), Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin (offshore & onshore), Assam Shelf (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran), Cambay Basin (Gujarat), Cauvery Basin (Tamil Nadu).
* Reserves: Crude Oil: ~650 Million Tonnes (MT); Natural Gas: ~1300 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) (as of April 1, 2023, MoPNG). * Production: Crude oil production: ~29 MT in FY 2023-24; Natural gas production: ~36 BCM in FY 2023-24 (MoPNG).
* Import Dependency: India imports over 85% of its crude oil and about 50% of its natural gas requirements (MoPNG, 2023-24), making it highly vulnerable to global price fluctuations and geopolitical events.
- Unconventional Resources — Hydrocarbons trapped in low-permeability reservoirs, requiring advanced extraction techniques.
* Shale Oil/Gas: Trapped in shale rock formations. India has potential in Cambay, Krishna-Godavari, and Cauvery basins. Exploration is ongoing, but commercial production is limited due to geological challenges and environmental concerns.
* Tight Oil/Gas: Trapped in tight sandstone or carbonate formations. * Coal Bed Methane (CBM): Natural gas adsorbed in coal seams. India has significant CBM potential in Gondwana basins like Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, and Godavari.
Commercial production is underway in some blocks (e.g., Raniganj East).
C. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy provides a clean, baseload power option, crucial for India's energy security and climate goals.
- Fuel Resources — India has modest uranium reserves (Jaduguda, Tummalapalle, Domiasiat) but significant thorium reserves, estimated at ~13% of global reserves (monazite sands along coastal areas, particularly Kerala, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh). This drives India's unique three-stage nuclear power program.
- Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program — Envisioned by Homi J. Bhabha, it aims to utilize India's vast thorium reserves.
* Stage 1 (Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors - PHWRs): Uses natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as moderator and coolant. Produces plutonium as a byproduct. India's current operational fleet primarily consists of PHWRs.
* Stage 2 (Fast Breeder Reactors - FBRs): Uses plutonium (from Stage 1) as fuel and breeds more fissile material (plutonium-239 from uranium-238 or uranium-233 from thorium-232). India's Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam is a key step.
* Stage 3 (Advanced Heavy Water Reactors - AHWRs): Will use uranium-233 (bred in Stage 2 from thorium) and thorium as fuel, completing the thorium fuel cycle. This stage is still in the R&D phase.
- Reactor Types in Indian Fleet — Predominantly PHWRs. Also has a few Light Water Reactors (LWRs) from international collaborations (e.g., Kudankulam with Russia - VVERs, a type of PWR).
- Indian Nuclear Power Capacity — ~7.5 GW (as of 2023), with plans to significantly increase it to 22.48 GW by 2031 (Department of Atomic Energy, GoI).
4. Practical Functioning and Technology
- Thermal Power Plants (Coal-based) — Involve coal handling (crushing, pulverizing), combustion in boilers to produce high-pressure steam, which drives turbines connected to generators. Supercritical and ultra-supercritical technologies (higher steam temperature/pressure) improve efficiency and reduce emissions.
- Nuclear Reactors — Fission of uranium/plutonium generates heat, which boils water to produce steam, driving turbines. Indian PHWRs use heavy water for moderation and cooling. FBRs use liquid sodium as a coolant and operate with a fast neutron spectrum.
- Shale Extraction (Hydraulic Fracturing/Fracking) — Involves injecting high-pressure fluid (water, sand, chemicals) into shale formations to create fractures, releasing trapped oil and gas. This technology has environmental risks, including water contamination and seismic activity.
5. Environmental Impacts
Non-renewable energy sources, particularly fossil fuels, are major contributors to environmental degradation:
- Air Pollution — Burning coal and petroleum releases particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and heavy metals (mercury). These cause respiratory diseases, acid rain, and smog. India's cities frequently rank among the most polluted globally.
- Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions — Combustion of fossil fuels releases large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), which are primary drivers of climate change. India's energy sector contributed approximately 2.7 GtCO2 in 2022 (IEA), making it the third-largest emitter globally.
- Local Ecological Damage — Open-cast mining for coal leads to deforestation, habitat destruction, land degradation, soil erosion, and displacement of communities. Oil and gas exploration can damage fragile ecosystems.
- Water Use and Pollution — Thermal power plants are highly water-intensive for cooling. Fracking for shale gas requires vast amounts of water and generates contaminated wastewater. Acid mine drainage from coal mines pollutes water bodies.
- Radioactive Waste Management — Nuclear power generates high-level radioactive waste, which requires secure, long-term storage for thousands of years, posing significant safety and security challenges.
6. Economics and Policy
- Energy Security Implications — India's heavy reliance on imported crude oil and natural gas exposes it to global price volatility, supply disruptions, and geopolitical risks. This necessitates diversification of energy sources and strategic petroleum reserves.
- Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) — India has established SPR facilities (e.g., Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur) to hold crude oil stocks to mitigate supply shocks. Expansion plans are underway.
- Subsidy Structures — Historically, fuel subsidies (e.g., kerosene, LPG) have been significant, though efforts are being made to rationalize them (e.g., Direct Benefit Transfer for LPG). Pricing mechanisms like the Administered Price Mechanism (APM) for domestic crude oil and natural gas have largely been replaced by market-linked pricing to incentivize production.
- International Trade Dynamics — India is a major player in global energy markets, influencing crude oil prices and seeking long-term supply contracts. Its energy diplomacy is crucial for securing resources.
- Recent Policy Changes — Focus on increasing domestic coal and hydrocarbon production, promoting CBM/shale gas, expanding nuclear capacity, and accelerating the transition to renewable energy to reduce import dependency and meet climate targets.
7. Vyyuha Analysis: India's Coal Dependency vs. Climate Commitments
India faces a profound dilemma: balancing its developmental imperatives with its ambitious climate commitments. Coal, the cheapest and most abundant domestic energy resource, remains the bedrock of India's energy security, fueling rapid industrialization and providing affordable electricity to a growing population.
The target to produce 1 billion tonnes of coal by 2025-26 underscores its continued centrality. However, this reliance directly conflicts with India's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, which aims for a 45% reduction in emissions intensity by 2030 and achieving Net Zero by 2070.
The structural barriers to a rapid renewable transition are formidable: the intermittency of solar and wind requires significant grid modernization and storage solutions, which are capital-intensive; the existing coal-fired power plants represent massive sunk costs; and the socio-economic implications of phasing out coal, including job losses in mining regions, are politically sensitive.
While India is aggressively expanding its renewable energy capacity, the sheer scale of its energy demand growth means that coal cannot be entirely phased out in the short to medium term. The critical examination point here is India's strategy of 'energy transition' rather than 'energy abandonment' for fossil fuels, focusing on clean coal technologies and a gradual, just transition.
Vyyuha's trend analysis indicates this topic's increasing importance because the global climate agenda is intensifying, and India's energy choices will significantly shape future global emissions trajectories, making it a recurring theme in UPSC Mains GS3 and Essay papers.
8. Inter-topic Connections
Understanding non-renewable energy is incomplete without linking it to broader themes:
- Energy Security — Directly tied to import dependency and geopolitical stability.
- Climate Change — Primary driver of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming.
- Environmental Governance — Role of regulatory bodies and environmental laws in mitigating impacts.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) — Directly impacts SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG 13 (Climate Action).
- Pollution Control — Necessitates advanced technologies and policy interventions.
Often confused with
Side-by-side differences the UPSC paper likes to test.
| Aspect | Non-renewable Energy | Renewable Energy Sources |
|---|---|---|
| Resource Availability | Non-renewable: Finite, exhaustible (e.g., coal, oil, gas, uranium). | Renewable: Infinite, naturally replenished (e.g., solar, wind, hydro, biomass). |
| Formation Time | Non-renewable: Millions of years (geological timescales). | Renewable: Continuous or replenished on human timescales. |
| Environmental Impact | Non-renewable: High (GHG emissions, air/water pollution, land degradation, radioactive waste). | Renewable: Low to moderate (land use, habitat disruption, specific waste like solar panels, but generally cleaner). |
| Energy Security | Non-renewable: Can lead to import dependency, geopolitical risks (for oil/gas). | Renewable: Enhances energy independence, reduces import bills. |
| Cost & Technology Maturity | Non-renewable: Established infrastructure, often lower upfront cost for fossil fuels, but externalized environmental costs are high. Nuclear has high upfront cost. | Renewable: Declining costs, rapid technological advancements, but intermittency requires storage/grid upgrades. |
| Baseload Power | Non-renewable: Generally provides reliable baseload power (coal, nuclear). | Renewable: Intermittent (solar, wind) requires backup or storage; hydro/geothermal can provide baseload. |
The fundamental distinction between non-renewable and renewable energy lies in their replenishability and environmental footprint. Non-renewables, formed over geological epochs, are finite and contribute significantly to pollution and climate change, often leading to energy security concerns due to import dependency.
Renewables, conversely, are inexhaustible, generally cleaner, and enhance energy independence, though they present challenges related to intermittency and grid integration. From a UPSC perspective, understanding this dichotomy is crucial for analyzing India's energy transition policies, climate commitments, and the strategic shift towards a sustainable energy future.
Why it is tested: This comparison is fundamental for Mains GS3 (Environment, Economy) and Essay. Questions often revolve around India's energy transition, the challenges of phasing out fossil fuels, and the role of renewables in achieving energy security and climate goals. It helps in structuring answers on policy choices and future energy pathways.
| Aspect | Non-renewable Energy | Coal vs. Petroleum vs. Natural Gas vs. Nuclear Energy (in Indian Context) |
|---|---|---|
| Availability in India | Coal: Abundant domestic reserves (5th largest globally). | Petroleum: Limited domestic reserves, high import dependency (>85%). |
| Primary Use | Coal: Electricity generation (70%+), steel, cement. | Petroleum: Transportation fuel, petrochemicals. |
| Environmental Impact | Coal: High GHG emissions, severe air pollution, land degradation, water use. | Petroleum: High GHG emissions, air pollution (NOx, PM), oil spills. |
| Cost & Infrastructure | Coal: Relatively low fuel cost, established infrastructure, but high externalized environmental costs. | Petroleum: High import cost, extensive refining & distribution infrastructure. |
| Energy Security Role | Coal: High domestic availability ensures baseload energy security. | Petroleum: Major vulnerability due to high import dependency. |
| Future Prospects in India | Coal: Continued dominance for baseload, but focus on clean coal technologies and gradual reduction. | Petroleum: Efforts to boost domestic production, but imports will remain high; shift to EVs. |
This comparison highlights the distinct roles and challenges of each major non-renewable energy source within India's energy matrix. Coal, despite its environmental costs, remains critical for baseload power due to domestic abundance.
Petroleum and natural gas, while essential, expose India to significant import vulnerabilities. Nuclear energy, leveraging India's thorium reserves, is a strategic long-term solution for clean baseload power.
Each source presents unique trade-offs between energy security, economic viability, and environmental sustainability, which are central to India's energy policy formulation.
Why it is tested: This detailed comparison is invaluable for Mains GS3, particularly for questions on India's energy mix, energy security strategies, and the challenges of transitioning to a sustainable energy system. It enables aspirants to provide nuanced arguments about the role of each fuel type in India's developmental trajectory and climate action.
Questions students ask
7 answered on this topic.
What are the primary types of non-renewable energy sources and their significance for India?
The primary types are fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium, thorium). For India, coal is paramount, accounting for over 70% of electricity generation due to abundant domestic reserves.
Petroleum and natural gas are crucial for transportation and industry, but India is heavily import-dependent for these. Nuclear energy, though a smaller contributor currently, is strategically vital for long-term energy security and clean baseload power, leveraging India's significant thorium reserves through its unique three-stage program.
These sources collectively meet the bulk of India's commercial energy demand, driving economic growth.
Why is India so reliant on coal, and what are the implications?
India's reliance on coal stems from its vast domestic reserves, making it an affordable and readily available energy source. This reliance ensures energy security, supports industrialization, and provides employment.
However, the implications are significant: severe air pollution, high greenhouse gas emissions contributing to climate change, land degradation from mining, and water stress. This creates a complex policy challenge of balancing developmental needs with environmental protection and climate commitments, pushing for 'clean coal' technologies and a gradual transition to renewables.
What is India's three-stage nuclear power program, and why is thorium important?
India's three-stage nuclear power program, envisioned by Homi J. Bhabha, aims to achieve long-term energy independence by utilizing the country's vast thorium reserves. Stage 1 uses natural uranium in Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) to produce plutonium.
Stage 2 uses this plutonium in Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) to breed more fissile material (U-233 from thorium). Stage 3 will use U-233 and thorium in Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs). Thorium is crucial because India has limited uranium but abundant thorium, which can be converted into fissile U-233, ensuring a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle for centuries.
How does India address its high import dependency for crude oil and natural gas?
India addresses high import dependency through a multi-pronged strategy. Firstly, it aims to boost domestic exploration and production of conventional and unconventional hydrocarbons (like shale gas and CBM) through policy reforms such as the Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP).
Secondly, it diversifies import sources and seeks long-term supply contracts with various countries. Thirdly, it maintains Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPR) to cushion against supply shocks. Lastly, promoting energy efficiency and accelerating the transition to renewable energy sources are long-term solutions to reduce overall fossil fuel demand.
What are 'clean coal technologies' and their relevance for India?
Clean coal technologies (CCTs) are a suite of advanced technologies designed to reduce the environmental impact of coal-fired power generation. Examples include supercritical and ultra-supercritical power plants (which operate at higher temperatures and pressures for increased efficiency and lower emissions), Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).
For India, CCTs are highly relevant as coal will remain a dominant energy source for decades. They offer a pathway to mitigate pollution and GHG emissions from coal plants while ensuring energy security during the transition to a greener economy, though their high cost remains a challenge.
What are the environmental risks associated with unconventional hydrocarbon extraction like shale gas?
Unconventional hydrocarbon extraction, particularly hydraulic fracturing (fracking) for shale gas, poses several environmental risks. These include significant water consumption, potential contamination of groundwater from fracking fluids and wastewater, induced seismicity (minor earthquakes), and methane emissions (a potent greenhouse gas) during drilling and production.
There are also concerns about land use impacts and the safe disposal of large volumes of produced water. Regulatory oversight and advanced technological solutions are crucial to mitigate these risks.
How do non-renewable energy sources impact India's climate change commitments?
Non-renewable energy sources, especially fossil fuels, are the largest contributors to India's greenhouse gas emissions, primarily CO2 from combustion. This directly impacts India's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, which aim to reduce emissions intensity and increase non-fossil fuel electricity capacity.
While India is aggressively expanding renewables, the continued reliance on coal for baseload power makes achieving climate targets challenging. The balance between energy security, economic growth, and climate action is a central dilemma, necessitating a strategic, phased transition and investment in clean technologies.
Revise in 30 seconds
- Coal: — 5th largest reserves, 2nd largest producer. Gondwana (bituminous) >98%. Neyveli (lignite). Used for ~70% electricity.
- Oil/Gas: — High import dependency (>85% oil, ~50% gas). Mumbai High, KG Basin. HELP policy.
- Nuclear: — Modest Uranium, vast Thorium. 3-stage program (PHWR, FBR, AHWR). Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
- Impacts: — GHG emissions (~2.7 GtCO2 from energy, IEA 2022), air pollution, land degradation.
- Policy: — MMDR Act 2015, Coal Mines Act 2015, PNGRB Act 2006, EPA 1986.
- Energy Security: — SPRs (Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur).
Vyyuha Quick Recall: C-O-N-F-I-N-E-D for Non-Renewable Energy
- C — Coal: Types (Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite), Major Coalfields (Jharia, Raniganj, Talcher), Clean Coal Technologies (Supercritical, IGCC, CCUS).
- O — Oil: Reserves (limited), Major Fields (Mumbai High, KG Basin), Import Dependency (>85%), Strategic Petroleum Reserves (SPRs).
- N — Nuclear: Uranium & Thorium (vast reserves), Three-Stage Program (PHWR, FBR, AHWR), Atomic Energy Act 1962.
- F — Fossil Fuels: Formation (millions of years), Finite nature, Primary energy source.
- I — India's Energy Mix: Statistics (Coal ~55% primary, >70% electricity), Import dependency, Energy Security.
- N — National Policies: MMDR Act 2015, Coal Mines Act 2015, PNGRB Act 2006, HELP 2016, National Mineral Policy 2019.
- E — Environmental Impacts: GHG Emissions (~2.7 GtCO2 from energy), Air Pollution (SOx, NOx, PM), Land Degradation, Water Use, Radioactive Waste.
- D — Development vs. Dilemma: Balancing economic growth with climate commitments, Just Transition.