Medieval India — Key Changes

Entry	Year	Description	Impact
Alauddin Khilji's Market Reforms	Early 14th Century	Alauddin Khilji implemented comprehensive market control regulations, fixing prices for all essential commodities, establishing separate markets (mandis), and employing a strict espionage system to prevent hoarding and black marketing. He also introduced land measurement for revenue assessment.	Enabled the maintenance of a large standing army at lower costs, preventing inflation and ensuring military loyalty. Centralized economic control, though temporary, demonstrated the state's capacity for intervention and significantly impacted the urban economy.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Token Currency	c. 1329-1332 CE	Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced brass and copper coins as token currency, intended to be equivalent in value to gold and silver coins, to address the shortage of precious metals and facilitate trade.	The experiment largely failed due to widespread counterfeiting and lack of public trust, leading to economic chaos and a significant loss of imperial revenue. It highlighted the challenges of implementing radical economic policies without adequate state control and public confidence.
Akbar's Mansabdari System	c. 1570s	Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system, a graded hierarchical administrative and military system where every officer (mansabdar) was assigned a rank (mansab) determining his status, salary, and the number of cavalrymen he was expected to maintain. It had Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (cavalry rank) components.	Centralized the administration and military, creating a unified imperial service. It reduced the power of feudal chieftains and ensured direct loyalty to the emperor, forming the backbone of Mughal governance for centuries. It also facilitated a more efficient revenue collection and military organization.
Sher Shah Suri's Land Revenue Reforms	c. 1540s	Sher Shah Suri introduced a standardized land revenue system based on the measurement of land (zabti system). Revenue was fixed as one-third of the average produce and could be paid in cash or kind. He also issued 'pattas' (title deeds) and 'qabuliyats' (agreements) to peasants.	Provided greater security to peasants and ensured a more equitable and efficient revenue collection for the state. His reforms were highly influential and later adopted and refined by Akbar's finance minister, Todar Mal, forming the basis of the Mughal revenue system.