Commercialization of Agriculture — Key Changes

Entry	Year	Description	Impact
Regulation I of 1793 (Permanent Settlement)	1793	This regulation formalized the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, fixing the land revenue demand in perpetuity and recognizing Zamindars as landowners. It fundamentally altered land relations and revenue collection.	Created a class of landlords (Zamindars) loyal to the British, but also led to increased exploitation of peasants who were forced to pay high rents. The fixed cash demand pushed peasants towards commercial crops to meet obligations, laying the institutional groundwork for commercialization.
Madras Regulation XXX of 1802 (Ryotwari System)	1802	This regulation, and subsequent ones, established the Ryotwari system in parts of Madras Presidency, settling revenue directly with individual cultivators (ryots).	While eliminating intermediaries like Zamindars, the high and periodically revised revenue demands still compelled ryots to grow cash crops to generate the necessary cash, leading to indebtedness and vulnerability to market fluctuations, thus contributing to commercialization.
Regulation VII of 1822 (Mahalwari System)	1822	This regulation introduced the Mahalwari system in the North-Western Provinces, where revenue was settled with the village community or a group of villages (mahal).	Similar to other systems, the high cash revenue demand placed collective pressure on the village community, which in turn pushed individual cultivators towards commercial crops to meet the collective obligation, further integrating them into the commercial economy.
Act X of 1859 (Bengal Rent Act)	1859	This act aimed to define and protect the rights of tenants in Bengal, particularly against arbitrary enhancement of rent by Zamindars. It granted occupancy rights to ryots who had cultivated land for 12 years.	While intended to provide some relief to peasants, its implementation was often weak, and it did not fundamentally alter the pressure to grow cash crops or the overall exploitative structure of commercial agriculture. It was a response to growing agrarian unrest but had limited practical impact on commercialization's core drivers.