Hindu Philosophy Schools — Definition
Definition
Hindu Philosophy Schools, often referred to as 'Darshanas' (meaning 'points of view' or 'perspectives'), represent the diverse intellectual traditions and systems of thought that originated in ancient India.
These schools are fundamentally concerned with understanding the nature of reality, the human condition, the path to liberation (moksha), and the principles of ethical living (dharma). From a UPSC perspective, understanding these schools is crucial not just for culture but also for grasping the foundational ideas that permeate Indian society, law, and even modern governance principles.
- Astika (Orthodox) Schools: — These six schools accept the authority of the Vedas as revealed texts and a valid source of knowledge. They generally believe in the concepts of Atman (soul), Brahman (ultimate reality), Karma, and rebirth. The six Astika schools are:
* Samkhya: A dualistic philosophy that posits two ultimate realities: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). It explains the evolution of the universe from Prakriti under the influence of Purusha, without positing a God.
* Yoga: Primarily a practical methodology for achieving liberation, based on the theoretical framework of Samkhya. It emphasizes meditation, ethical discipline, and physical postures to unite the individual consciousness with the universal.
* Nyaya: The school of logic and epistemology, focusing on the means of acquiring valid knowledge (pramanas). It developed rigorous methods of reasoning and debate. * Vaisheshika: An atomistic and pluralistic philosophy that categorizes all knowable objects into six or seven fundamental categories (padarthas), emphasizing the atomic nature of the universe.
* Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Primarily concerned with the correct interpretation and application of Vedic rituals and injunctions (dharma). It emphasizes the efficacy of actions (karma) and the importance of performing Vedic sacrifices.
* Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Based on the Upanishads (the philosophical sections of the Vedas), it explores the nature of Brahman and Atman, and their relationship. It has numerous sub-schools, most notably Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita, each offering a distinct interpretation of this relationship.
- Nastika (Heterodox) Schools: — These schools do not accept the authority of the Vedas. While they often share common Indian philosophical concerns like karma and rebirth, their rejection of Vedic infallibility sets them apart. The three prominent Nastika schools are:
* Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, it emphasizes the Four Noble Truths (suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path to cessation) and the Eightfold Path as the means to attain Nirvana.
It rejects the concept of a permanent soul (Anatta) and the authority of the Vedas. * Jainism: Founded by Mahavira, it advocates extreme non-violence (Ahimsa) and asceticism. Its core doctrines include Anekantavada (multiplicity of viewpoints) and Syadvada (conditional predication), emphasizing the complex nature of reality and the importance of self-control for liberation.
* Charvaka (Lokayata): A materialistic and atheistic school that rejects all supernatural claims, the authority of the Vedas, and the concepts of karma, rebirth, and an afterlife. It advocates for direct perception (pratyaksha) as the only valid source of knowledge and promotes hedonism within ethical bounds.
Understanding these classifications and the core tenets of each school is fundamental for any aspirant, as UPSC frequently tests the nuances of their philosophical positions, their interconnections, and their lasting impact on Indian thought and society.