Western Moral Philosophers — Revision Notes

⚡ 30-Second Revision

WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS (ETH-05-02):

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE): Virtue ethics, golden mean, eudaimonia (human flourishing), phronesis (practical wisdom). Asks: What kind of person should I become?

KANT (1724-1804): Deontological ethics, categorical imperative (universalizability + treat persons as ends), duty-based morality. Asks: What is my duty?

MILL (1806-1873): Utilitarianism, greatest happiness principle, harm principle (government can restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others). Asks: What produces best consequences?

RAWLS (1921-2002): Justice as fairness, veil of ignorance (design society without knowing your position), equal basic liberties + difference principle. Asks: What is fair to everyone?

MacINTYRE (1929-present): Virtue ethics revival, virtues embedded in practices and traditions, critique of modern moral fragmentation.

NUSSBAUM (1947-present): Capabilities approach, ten central human capabilities, justice means enabling people to achieve capabilities.

KEY TENSIONS: Virtue ethics vs. utilitarianism (character vs. consequences), Kantian duty vs. utilitarian consequences, individual rights vs. collective welfare.

UPSC RELEVANCE: Constitutional rights (Kantian), welfare policy (utilitarian), fairness (Rawlsian), administrative character (Aristotelian), development policy (capabilities approach).

2-Minute Revision

WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS FOR UPSC:

DEFINITION: Western moral philosophers developed systematic frameworks for ethical reasoning that provide foundations for modern governance, constitutional law, and administrative ethics.

KEY PHILOSOPHERS:

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Aristotle—Virtue ethics: develop excellent character (virtues) through habituation; golden mean (virtue between two vices); eudaimonia (human flourishing); phronesis (practical wisdom). Application: administrative character development.

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Kant—Deontological ethics: morality based on duty and universal principles; categorical imperative (act only on principles you could universalize; treat persons as ends); rejects consequentialism. Application: constitutional rights protection.

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Mill—Utilitarianism: right action produces greatest happiness for greatest number; harm principle (government can restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others); higher vs. lower pleasures. Application: policy analysis, cost-benefit analysis.

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Rawls—Justice as fairness: veil of ignorance (design society without knowing your position); equal basic liberties; difference principle (inequalities justified only if they benefit least advantaged). Application: fairness in policy design.

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MacIntyre—Virtue ethics revival: virtues embedded in practices and traditions; critique of modern moral fragmentation; importance of institutional culture.

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Nussbaum—Capabilities approach: justice means enabling people to achieve central human capabilities (life, health, practical reason, affiliation, etc.); recognizes diverse needs. Application: development policy.

TENSIONS: Virtue ethics emphasizes character; utilitarianism emphasizes consequences. Kantian duty is absolute; utilitarian consequences are flexible. Individual rights vs. collective welfare.

UPSC RELEVANCE: All frameworks tested in mains; questions increasingly ask to apply frameworks to governance challenges rather than just explain theories.

5-Minute Revision

WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS: COMPREHENSIVE REVISION

OVERVIEW: Six major Western moral philosophers provide foundational frameworks for ethical reasoning in governance. Understanding their theories and how to apply them is essential for UPSC Ethics paper.

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE)—VIRTUE ETHICS:

Core idea: Ethics is about developing excellent character (virtues) and achieving eudaimonia (human flourishing).
Golden mean: Virtue lies between two vices (excess and deficiency). Courage lies between cowardice and recklessness.
Phronesis: Practical wisdom—ability to perceive what situation requires and act appropriately. Developed through experience and habituation.
Application: Administrative ethics requires developing virtuous character (integrity, impartiality, wisdom) through experience and mentorship. Good governance requires judgment, not just rule-following.
Strength: Emphasizes character development and practical wisdom.
Limitation: Difficult to apply in modern bureaucracy that emphasizes procedures and rules.

KANT (1724-1804)—DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS:

Core idea: Morality is based on duty and universal rational principles, not consequences.
Categorical imperative: (1) Act only on principles you could will to become universal laws. (2) Treat persons as ends in themselves, never merely as means.
Rejects consequentialism: An action can be right even if it produces bad consequences, as long as it follows the categorical imperative.
Application: Constitutional protections of fundamental rights reflect Kantian principles. Government cannot violate rights even for important social goals. Respects human dignity and autonomy.
Strength: Provides absolute protection for fundamental rights and human dignity.
Limitation: Absolutist approach struggles with balancing competing principles.

MILL (1806-1873)—UTILITARIANISM:

Core idea: Right action produces greatest happiness for greatest number. Morality is about maximizing overall well-being.
Harm principle: Government can restrict individual freedom only to prevent harm to others. Cannot restrict freedom just to make people happier or more virtuous.
Higher vs. lower pleasures: Intellectual, moral, aesthetic pleasures are superior to physical pleasures.
Secondary principles: General rules (honesty, promise-keeping, justice) tend to maximize utility even when breaking them might seem beneficial in particular case.
Application: Policy analysis, cost-benefit analysis, welfare program design. Guides thinking about resource allocation and maximizing social welfare.
Strength: Provides framework for calculating consequences and optimizing outcomes.
Limitation: Can justify sacrificing minorities for majority benefit; difficult to measure and compare different types of well-being.

RAWLS (1921-2002)—JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS:

Core idea: Justice should be determined by principles that would be chosen behind a veil of ignorance.
Veil of ignorance: Imagine designing society without knowing what position you'll occupy. What principles would you choose?
Two principles: (1) Equal basic liberties for all. (2) Economic inequalities justified only if they benefit least advantaged (difference principle).
Application: Analyzing fairness of policies; designing institutions; thinking about affirmative action; distributive justice.
Strength: Provides framework for thinking about fairness that considers interests of everyone, especially worst-off.
Limitation: Veil of ignorance is thought experiment, not practical decision-making procedure.

MacINTYRE (1929-PRESENT)—VIRTUE ETHICS REVIVAL:

Core idea: Virtues can only be understood within context of social practices and historical traditions. Morality is embedded in practices, not abstract principles.
Critique of modern ethics: Modern ethics has abandoned virtue ethics tradition and replaced it with abstract principles, leading to moral fragmentation.
Application: Understanding administrative ethics requires understanding tradition of public service and standards of excellence that tradition has developed. Importance of mentorship and institutional culture.
Strength: Emphasizes importance of practices, traditions, and institutional culture.
Limitation: Struggles with how to adjudicate between different traditions.

NUSSBAUM (1947-PRESENT)—CAPABILITIES APPROACH:

Core idea: Justice means enabling people to achieve central human capabilities—real freedoms and opportunities to live fully human life.
Ten central capabilities: Life, bodily health, bodily integrity, senses/imagination/thought, emotions, practical reason, affiliation, other species/nature, play, control over environment.
Differs from utilitarianism: Doesn't reduce well-being to single metric. Recognizes diverse needs.
Differs from rights-based approaches: Focuses on what people are actually able to do and be, not just formal rights.
Application: Development policy; ensuring people can achieve central capabilities; addressing diverse needs; removing barriers to capability achievement.
Strength: Provides framework for thinking about what justice requires beyond just resource distribution.
Limitation: Difficult to measure capabilities; disagreement about threshold levels.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS:

Virtue ethics (Aristotle, MacIntyre): Character development, practical wisdom, human flourishing.
Deontological ethics (Kant): Duty, universal principles, respect for persons.
Utilitarianism (Mill): Consequences, maximizing happiness, cost-benefit analysis.
Justice theory (Rawls): Fairness, equal treatment, benefiting least advantaged.
Capabilities approach (Nussbaum): Enabling human capabilities, diverse needs, real freedoms.

TENSIONS:

Virtue ethics vs. utilitarianism: Character vs. consequences. Virtuous person might refuse to lie even if lying produces better consequences.
Kantian duty vs. utilitarian consequences: Duty is absolute; consequences are flexible. Kantian won't violate rights even for important social goals; utilitarian might.
Individual rights vs. collective welfare: Kantian and Rawlsian protect individual rights; utilitarian might sacrifice them for greater good.

UPSC RELEVANCE:

Prelims: Basic knowledge of philosophers and key concepts.
Mains: Apply frameworks to governance challenges; compare frameworks; integrate multiple perspectives.
Trend: Shift from theoretical questions to application-based questions.
Recent developments: AI ethics, climate change, affirmative action, welfare vs. rights.

KEY CASES:

Kesavananda Bharati (basic structure doctrine reflects Kantian and Rawlsian principles)
Maneka Gandhi (right to life includes capabilities for human flourishing—Nussbaum)
Mandal Commission (affirmative action analyzed using Rawlsian difference principle)
Navtej Singh Johar (decriminalization reflects Kantian and Rawlsian principles)

PRACTICAL APPLICATION: When facing ethical dilemma, ask: What would virtuous person do? (Aristotle) What is my duty? (Kant) What produces best consequences? (Mill) What would be fair to everyone? (Rawls) What does my professional tradition require? (MacIntyre) What capabilities are at stake? (Nussbaum)

Prelims Revision Notes

WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS—PRELIMS REVISION:

PHILOSOPHER PROFILES:

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ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE, Ancient Greece)

• Framework: Virtue ethics • Key concept: Golden mean (virtue between two vices) • Ultimate good: Eudaimonia (human flourishing) • Key ability: Phronesis (practical wisdom) • Question type: "What kind of person should I become?" • Memorize: Virtue = stable disposition to act appropriately; developed through habituation

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IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804, Prussia)

• Framework: Deontological ethics • Key principle: Categorical imperative • Two formulations: (1) Universalizability—act only on principles you could universalize (2) Treat persons as ends, never merely as means • Rejects: Consequentialism • Question type: "What is my duty?" • Memorize: Duty is absolute; consequences don't determine morality

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JOHN STUART MILL (1806-1873, Britain)

• Framework: Utilitarianism • Key principle: Greatest happiness principle • Famous principle: Harm principle—government can restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others • Distinguishes: Higher pleasures (intellectual, moral, aesthetic) vs. lower pleasures (physical) • Question type: "What produces best consequences?" • Memorize: Utility = happiness; maximize overall well-being

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JOHN RAWLS (1921-2002, America)

• Framework: Justice as fairness • Key tool: Veil of ignorance—design society without knowing your position • Two principles: (1) Equal basic liberties (2) Difference principle (inequalities benefit least advantaged) • Question type: "What is fair to everyone?" • Memorize: Veil of ignorance forces consideration of everyone's interests

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ALASDAIR MacINTYRE (1929-present, Scotland/America)

• Framework: Virtue ethics revival • Key idea: Virtues embedded in practices and traditions • Critique: Modern ethics has abandoned virtue tradition • Application: Administrative ethics requires understanding professional traditions • Memorize: Virtues are learned through participation in practices

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MARTHA NUSSBAUM (1947-present, America)

• Framework: Capabilities approach • Key idea: Justice = enabling people to achieve central human capabilities • Ten capabilities: Life, health, bodily integrity, senses, emotions, practical reason, affiliation, nature, play, control over environment • Differs from: Utilitarianism (doesn't reduce to single metric) and rights-based approaches (focuses on actual abilities) • Memorize: Capabilities = real freedoms and opportunities

KEY CONCEPTS FOR PRELIMS:

Virtue ethics: Focuses on character development; asks "What kind of person should I become?"
Deontological ethics: Focuses on duty and principles; asks "What is my duty?"
Utilitarianism: Focuses on consequences; asks "What produces best outcomes?"
Justice theory: Focuses on fairness; asks "What is fair to everyone?"
Capabilities approach: Focuses on enabling human flourishing; asks "What are people able to do and be?"

Golden mean: Virtue lies between two vices (excess and deficiency)
Categorical imperative: Act only on principles you could universalize; treat persons as ends
Harm principle: Government can restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others
Veil of ignorance: Design society without knowing your position
Difference principle: Inequalities justified only if they benefit least advantaged

COMMON PRELIMS TRAPS:

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Golden mean = mathematical average (WRONG: it's principle of appropriate response)
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Kant = consequentialist (WRONG: Kant rejects consequentialism)
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Mill = hedonist (WRONG: Mill distinguishes higher and lower pleasures)
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Rawls = egalitarian (WRONG: Rawls allows inequalities if they benefit worst-off)
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Virtue ethics = selfish (WRONG: virtue ethics emphasizes developing excellent character)

QUICK IDENTIFICATION GUIDE:

If question asks about:

Character development → Aristotle or MacIntyre
Duty and universal principles → Kant
Consequences and happiness → Mill
Fairness and justice → Rawls
Human capabilities → Nussbaum
Practices and traditions → MacIntyre

FACTUAL RECALL:

Aristotle: 384-322 BCE, Nicomachean Ethics
Kant: 1724-1804, Critique of Practical Reason, Groundwork for Metaphysics of Morals
Mill: 1806-1873, Utilitarianism, On Liberty
Rawls: 1921-2002, A Theory of Justice
MacIntyre: 1929-present, After Virtue
Nussbaum: 1947-present, capabilities approach developed with Amartya Sen

MNEMONIC FOR FRAMEWORKS:

VADUC = Virtue (Aristotle), Absolute duty (Kant), Utility (Mill), Difference principle (Rawls), Capabilities (Nussbaum), Communities (MacIntyre)

Mains Revision Notes

WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS—MAINS REVISION:

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR MAINS ANSWERS:

STRUCTURE:

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Introduction: Define relevant frameworks; state thesis
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Body: Apply each framework to question; compare frameworks; identify tensions
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Synthesis: Integrate frameworks; acknowledge strengths and limitations
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Conclusion: Summarize implications for governance

KEY ARGUMENTS FOR EACH PHILOSOPHER:

ARISTOTLE—VIRTUE ETHICS: Argument 1: Ethics is fundamentally about character development, not just following rules or calculating consequences. A virtuous person develops the judgment (phronesis) to respond appropriately to novel situations.

Argument 2: Human flourishing (eudaimonia) requires developing virtuous character and exercising these virtues in life. Justice requires enabling people to develop their capacities. Argument 3: The golden mean principle suggests that virtue lies in appropriate response to situation, not in rigid rules or absolute principles.

For governance: Administrative ethics requires developing virtuous character in civil servants. Good governance requires judgment and wisdom, not just rule-following. Welfare programs should develop human capabilities and self-reliance, not just distribute resources.

KANT—DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS: Argument 1: Morality is based on duty and universal rational principles, not on consequences. An action is right if it follows the categorical imperative, regardless of outcomes.

Argument 2: The categorical imperative has two formulations: (1) Universalizability—act only on principles you could will to become universal laws. (2) Respect for persons—treat people as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

Argument 3: Fundamental rights and human dignity cannot be violated even for important social goals. Certain principles are inviolable. For governance: Constitutional protections of fundamental rights reflect Kantian principles.

Government cannot manipulate citizens or sacrifice innocent people for greater good. Respect for human dignity is non-negotiable.

MILL—UTILITARIANISM: Argument 1: The right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Morality is about maximizing overall well-being. Argument 2: The harm principle limits government power: government can restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others, not to make people happier or more virtuous.

Argument 3: Calculating utility requires considering long-term consequences and systemic effects. Secondary principles (honesty, justice, fairness) tend to maximize utility even when breaking them might seem beneficial in particular case.

For governance: Policy should be designed to maximize overall welfare. Cost-benefit analysis is appropriate tool for evaluating policies. However, pure utilitarianism must be constrained by rights and fairness principles.

RAWLS—JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS: Argument 1: Justice should be determined by principles that would be chosen behind a veil of ignorance—designing society without knowing what position you'll occupy. Argument 2: Two principles of justice: (1) Equal basic liberties for all.

(2) Economic inequalities justified only if they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle). Argument 3: Justice requires both protecting fundamental rights and ensuring fair distribution of benefits and burdens.

Inequalities are acceptable if they make the worst-off better off. For governance: Policies should be designed so that even the worst-off benefit. Basic rights should be equally protected. Affirmative action can be justified if it benefits the least advantaged.

MacINTYRE—VIRTUE ETHICS REVIVAL: Argument 1: Virtues can only be understood within the context of social practices and historical traditions. A virtue is an excellence that enables a practice to achieve its internal goods.

Argument 2: Modern ethics has abandoned the virtue ethics tradition and replaced it with abstract principles, leading to moral fragmentation. Different groups appeal to different principles without way to adjudicate between them.

Argument 3: Morality is learned through participation in traditions and communities of practice. Virtues are transmitted from experienced practitioners to newer ones. For governance: Administrative ethics requires understanding the tradition of public service and the standards of excellence that this tradition has developed.

Mentorship and institutional culture are crucial for developing ethical administrators.

NUSSBAUM—CAPABILITIES APPROACH: Argument 1: Justice means enabling people to achieve central human capabilities—the real freedoms and opportunities to live a fully human life. Argument 2: The capabilities approach differs from utilitarianism (doesn't reduce well-being to single metric) and rights-based approaches (focuses on what people are actually able to do and be, not just formal rights).

Argument 3: Justice requires recognizing diverse needs and removing barriers to capability achievement. Equal resources don't always enable equal capabilities. For governance: Development policy should focus on enabling people to achieve central capabilities.

Programs should address diverse needs and remove barriers to capability achievement.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS FOR MAINS:

Virtue ethics vs. Utilitarianism:

Virtue ethics: Character development, practical wisdom, human flourishing
Utilitarianism: Consequences, maximizing happiness, cost-benefit analysis
Tension: Virtuous person might refuse to lie even if lying produces better consequences
Integration: Both matter—develop virtuous character AND maximize welfare

Kantian duty vs. Utilitarian consequences:

Kantian: Duty is absolute; consequences don't determine morality
Utilitarian: Consequences determine morality; maximize overall welfare
Tension: Kantian won't violate rights even for important social goals; utilitarian might
Integration: Protect fundamental rights AND maximize welfare within those constraints

Individual rights vs. Collective welfare:

Rights-based (Kant, Rawls): Protect individual rights absolutely
Utilitarian: Maximize collective welfare, even if it requires restricting some rights
Tension: How much can we restrict individual freedom for collective benefit?
Integration: Protect fundamental rights AND pursue collective welfare through other means

THESIS STATEMENTS FOR MAINS:

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"While different ethical frameworks illuminate different aspects of governance challenges, a sophisticated approach integrates multiple perspectives: developing virtuous character (Aristotle), respecting fundamental rights (Kant), maximizing welfare (Mill), ensuring fairness (Rawls), and enabling human capabilities (Nussbaum)."

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"The tension between individual rights and collective welfare cannot be resolved by choosing one framework over another; instead, we must recognize that both matter and that the challenge is determining where to draw the line—protecting fundamental rights while pursuing legitimate collective goals."

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"Contemporary governance challenges require applying classical moral philosophy to new problems: AI ethics requires Kantian principles about respecting persons; climate change requires utilitarian thinking about long-term consequences; development requires capabilities approach to human flourishing."

KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE:

Acknowledge that philosophers disagree about what makes an action right
Explain why they disagree (different assumptions about human nature, morality, justice)
Show how different frameworks illuminate different aspects of problems
Recognize strengths and limitations of each framework
Provide examples from Indian governance to illustrate principles
Connect philosophical frameworks to constitutional provisions
Address practical challenges in applying philosophy to governance
Argue for integrated approach rather than choosing one framework

CASES TO REFERENCE:

Kesavananda Bharati: Basic structure doctrine reflects Kantian and Rawlsian principles
Maneka Gandhi: Right to life includes capabilities for human flourishing
Mandal Commission: Affirmative action analyzed using Rawlsian difference principle
Navtej Singh Johar: Decriminalization reflects Kantian and Rawlsian principles

QUOTES TO USE:

Aristotle: "We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit."
Kant: "Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end."
Mill: "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."
Rawls: "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought."

WHAT NOT TO WRITE:

Don't just describe what philosophers said without connecting to governance
Don't treat one framework as obviously correct without acknowledging others
Don't ignore practical challenges in applying philosophy
Don't use quotes without explaining what they mean
Don't treat philosophy as abstract and disconnected from real governance challenges

Vyyuha Quick Recall

VYYUHA QUICK RECALL—WESTERN MORAL PHILOSOPHERS:

MASTER MNEMONIC: "AVKRM-N" (Aristotle, Virtue; Kant, Reason; Mill, Utility; Rawls, Justice; MacIntyre, Meaning; Nussbaum, Capabilities)

INDIVIDUAL MNEMONICS:

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ARISTOTLE—"AVG-EWP"

A = Aristotle V = Virtue ethics G = Golden mean E = Eudaimonia (flourishing) W = Wisdom (phronesis) P = Practical judgment

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KANT—"KCD-URD"

K = Kant C = Categorical imperative D = Deontological U = Universal principles R = Respect for persons D = Duty-based

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MILL—"MUH-GHP"

M = Mill U = Utilitarianism H = Harm principle G = Greatest happiness H = Higher pleasures P = Principle-based

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RAWLS—"RJV-EBD"

R = Rawls J = Justice as fairness V = Veil of ignorance E = Equal basic liberties B = Benefit least advantaged D = Difference principle

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MacINTYRE—"MVT-PTC"

M = MacIntyre V = Virtue ethics revival T = Traditions matter P = Practices embedded T = Transmitted through communities C = Critique of modernity

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NUSSBAUM—"NCA-HCE"

N = Nussbaum C = Capabilities approach A = Abilities matter H = Human capabilities C = Central to justice E = Enable flourishing

FRAMEWORK COMPARISON MNEMONIC: "VDUC" V = Virtue ethics (Aristotle, MacIntyre) D = Deontological ethics (Kant) U = Utilitarian ethics (Mill) C = Capabilities approach (Nussbaum) (Plus Rawls' Justice theory)

QUICK QUESTION IDENTIFICATION:

"Character?" → Aristotle or MacIntyre "Duty?" → Kant "Consequences?" → Mill "Fair?" → Rawls "Capable?" → Nussbaum "Tradition?" → MacIntyre

TENSION MNEMONIC: "RVC" R = Rights vs. Welfare (Kant/Rawls vs. Mill) V = Virtue vs. Consequences (Aristotle vs. Mill) C = Character vs. Calculation (Aristotle vs. utilitarian)

MEMORABLE PHRASES:

Aristotle: "Virtue is a habit" (practice makes perfect)
Kant: "Treat people as ends, not means" (respect dignity)
Mill: "Greatest happiness principle" (maximize welfare)
Rawls: "Veil of ignorance" (fair to everyone)
MacIntyre: "Virtues in traditions" (embedded in practices)
Nussbaum: "Capabilities matter" (enable flourishing)

QUICK RECALL STORY:

Imagine a wise administrator (Aristotle) who follows her duty (Kant) to maximize welfare (Mill) fairly (Rawls) within her professional tradition (MacIntyre) while enabling people's capabilities (Nussbaum). This administrator integrates all frameworks.

TIME-SAVING RECALL:

30 seconds: "AVKRM-N" mnemonic + one-word definition for each 2 minutes: Add key concepts (golden mean, categorical imperative, harm principle, veil of ignorance, traditions, capabilities) 5 minutes: Add examples and applications to governance