Space Exploration — Tech Evolutions

Entry	Year	Description	Impact
N/A (Treaty)	1979	The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, often referred to as the Moon Agreement, was adopted by the UN General Assembly. It aims to establish an international regime to govern the exploitation of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies, declaring them the 'common heritage of mankind.' It prohibits national appropriation and militarization, and states that such resources should be shared equitably. However, due to its restrictive nature on resource exploitation, it has not been widely ratified by major spacefaring nations.	While legally significant, its limited ratification means it has not become the universally accepted framework for lunar resource governance. Major space powers prefer the less restrictive framework of the Outer Space Treaty, leading to ongoing debates about the legal status of space resources and the future of lunar mining. This creates a complex legal landscape for future space exploration and resource utilization, a critical area for UPSC aspirants to understand.
N/A (Accords)	2020	The Artemis Accords, led by the United States, are a set of non-binding multilateral agreements establishing principles for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids. They build upon the Outer Space Treaty, emphasizing transparency, peaceful purposes, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of scientific data, protection of heritage sites, space resource utilization, debris mitigation, and deconfliction of operations. India became a signatory in 2023, signaling its commitment to these principles.	The Accords represent an attempt to establish a modern framework for responsible behavior in space, particularly concerning lunar exploration and resource utilization, in the absence of a universally ratified Moon Agreement. They are shaping the norms for the next phase of space exploration, influencing international partnerships and potentially creating a de facto legal regime for activities beyond Earth orbit. For UPSC, understanding the Artemis Accords is crucial for analyzing contemporary space policy, international relations, and the future of space resource governance.