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Land Degradation — Explained

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<h3>Understanding Land Degradation: A Comprehensive UPSC Perspective</h3> Land degradation, a pervasive global environmental challenge, represents a decline in the productive capacity of land, impacting its ability to provide essential ecosystem services.

It's a complex phenomenon driven by a confluence of natural processes and, increasingly, unsustainable human activities. For UPSC aspirants, a nuanced understanding of its origins, types, causes, effects, mitigation strategies, and associated legal and international frameworks is paramount.

<h4>1. Origin and Historical Context</h4> The history of land degradation is intertwined with human civilization. Early agricultural practices, while foundational, often led to localized soil depletion and erosion.

However, the scale and intensity of degradation accelerated dramatically with the Industrial Revolution and subsequent population growth. Increased demand for food, fiber, and fuel led to extensive deforestation, overgrazing, and intensive farming practices.

Post-colonial development models, often prioritizing rapid industrialization and agricultural expansion, further exacerbated the problem, particularly in developing nations like India. The Green Revolution, while boosting food production, also introduced practices like excessive chemical use and irrigation, contributing to chemical degradation and salinization.

<h4>2. Constitutional and Legal Basis in India</h4> India's commitment to environmental protection, including land health, is enshrined in its Constitution and various legislative acts. <ul> <li>Article 48A (Directive Principle of State Policy): 'The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country.

' This mandates the state to take proactive measures for environmental protection, directly encompassing efforts to prevent and reverse land degradation.</li> <li>Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty): 'It shall be the duty of every citizen of India...

to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures.' This places a civic responsibility on individuals to contribute to environmental preservation, including sustainable land use.

</li> <li>Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Enacted under Article 253, this umbrella legislation empowers the Central Government to take all necessary measures for protecting and improving environmental quality and preventing, controlling, and abating environmental pollution.

This includes regulating activities that cause land degradation, such as industrial emissions, hazardous waste disposal, and unsustainable resource extraction.</li> <li>National Green Tribunal Act, 2010: This Act established the National Green Tribunal (NGT) for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources.

The NGT plays a crucial role in enforcing environmental laws, including those pertaining to land degradation, by holding polluters accountable and directing remedial actions.</li> </ul> These legal instruments provide the framework for government action and citizen participation in combating land degradation.

<h4>3. Key Provisions and Practical Functioning</h4> Addressing land degradation involves a multi-pronged approach, integrating policy, scientific research, and community engagement. Key provisions often include: <ul> <li>Land Use Planning: Zoning regulations and spatial planning to prevent conversion of prime agricultural land or ecologically sensitive areas.

</li> <li>Sustainable Agriculture Policies: Promoting organic farming, crop rotation, agroforestry, and efficient irrigation techniques.</li> <li>Afforestation and Reforestation Programs: Initiatives like the National Afforestation Programme to increase forest cover and prevent soil erosion.

</li> <li>Watershed Development: Integrated watershed management programs to conserve soil and water, particularly in rainfed areas. (This is a key area for <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-05-02">watershed management</a>.

)</li> <li>Pollution Control Norms: Strict regulations on industrial effluents, municipal waste, and agricultural chemical use to prevent soil contamination.

<h4>4. Types of Land Degradation and Specific Focus</h4> Land degradation manifests in various forms, often simultaneously, making its assessment and mitigation complex. From a UPSC perspective, the critical examination angle here is to understand the distinct characteristics and interconnectedness of these types.

<h5>a. Soil Erosion</h5> Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, a form of soil degradation. It's a natural process, but human activities have dramatically accelerated it. India loses significant topsoil annually due to erosion.

(Source: MoEFCC (2019)). <ul> <li>Causes: Deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable farming practices (e.g., ploughing up and down slopes), construction activities, strong winds, heavy rainfall.

</li> <li>Effects: Loss of fertile topsoil, reduced agricultural productivity, silting of rivers and reservoirs, increased flooding, desertification.</li> <li>Mitigation: Afforestation, contour ploughing, terrace farming, shelterbelts, minimum tillage, cover cropping.

These are all part of effective <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-05-04">soil conservation methods</a>.

<h5>b. Salinization</h5> Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts in the soil to an extent that it negatively impacts plant growth and soil productivity. It's particularly prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions and irrigated areas.

<ul> <li>Causes: Poor irrigation practices (e.g., over-irrigation without proper drainage), use of saline groundwater for irrigation, high evaporation rates, ingress of seawater in coastal areas.

</li> <li>Effects: Reduced crop yields, loss of arable land, changes in soil structure, decreased water infiltration.</li> <li>Mitigation: Improved drainage systems, use of salt-tolerant crops, application of gypsum, judicious irrigation, leaching with good quality water.

<h5>c. Waterlogging</h5> Waterlogging occurs when the soil becomes saturated with water, leading to anaerobic conditions that are detrimental to most plant roots. It's often associated with poor drainage and excessive irrigation.

<ul> <li>Causes: Excessive irrigation, poor natural drainage, obstruction of natural drainage systems, seepage from canals, heavy rainfall.</li> <li>Effects: Root damage due to lack of oxygen, reduced crop yields, increased incidence of plant diseases, salinization (as water evaporates, salts are left behind).

</li> <li>Mitigation: Improved drainage (surface and sub-surface), efficient irrigation techniques (e.g., drip irrigation), cultivation of water-tolerant crops, canal lining.

<h5>d. Chemical Degradation</h5> This involves the alteration of soil chemistry in a way that reduces its fertility or makes it toxic to plants and other organisms. <ul> <li>Pesticide/Fertilizer Contamination: Overuse of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers can lead to accumulation of toxic residues, nutrient imbalances, and groundwater contamination.

</li> <li>Industrial Pollutants: Discharge of untreated industrial effluents and improper disposal of hazardous waste can introduce heavy metals and other toxic chemicals into the soil.

</li> <li>Acidification: Caused by acid rain, excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers, or mining activities, leading to reduced nutrient availability and increased toxicity of certain elements.

</li> <li>Effects: Reduced soil biodiversity, decreased crop productivity, food chain contamination, human health risks.</li> <li>Mitigation: Integrated Pest Management (IPM), balanced fertilizer application, organic farming, bioremediation, phytoremediation, strict industrial waste management.

<h5>e. Physical Degradation</h5> Physical degradation refers to the deterioration of the soil's physical structure. <ul> <li>Compaction: Caused by heavy machinery, livestock trampling, or human foot traffic, leading to reduced porosity, poor aeration, and hindered root growth.

</li> <li>Crusting: Formation of a hard, dense layer on the soil surface, often due to impact of raindrops on bare soil, impeding seedling emergence and water infiltration.</li> <li>Mining-related Damage: Open-cast mining operations remove topsoil, alter topography, and leave behind vast tracts of degraded land and mine spoil, often contaminated with heavy metals.

</li> <li>Effects: Reduced water infiltration, increased runoff and erosion, poor root penetration, decreased microbial activity.</li> <li>Mitigation: Minimum tillage, use of lighter machinery, controlled grazing, mulching, soil amendments (e.

g., organic matter), land reclamation for mining areas.

<h4>5. Practical Functioning and Challenges</h4> Implementing land degradation control measures faces several challenges: lack of awareness among farmers, fragmented landholdings, inadequate financial resources, weak enforcement of environmental laws, and the complex interplay of socio-economic factors.

Climate change further exacerbates the problem, with extreme weather events intensifying erosion and desertification. (This highlights <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-03-02">climate change impacts on agriculture</a>.

<h4>6. Criticism and Misinterpretations</h4> Common Misinterpretations/False Myths: <ol> <li>Myth 1: Land degradation is only about desertification. Clarification: While desertification is a severe form of land degradation, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, land degradation encompasses a much broader range of issues including soil erosion, salinization, waterlogging, chemical pollution, and physical compaction, occurring in all climatic zones.

Desertification is a specific outcome, not the entire phenomenon. Understanding <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-05-05-02">desertification in India</a> is crucial, but it's a subset of the larger problem.

</li> <li>Myth 2: Land degradation is a natural process, so human intervention is futile. Clarification: While natural processes like wind and water erosion contribute, human activities (deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture, industrial pollution) are the primary drivers of accelerated land degradation today.

Effective human intervention through sustainable land management and policy changes can significantly mitigate and reverse degradation. </li> <li>Myth 3: Land degradation primarily affects agricultural productivity and has no broader impact.

Clarification: Beyond agriculture, land degradation leads to biodiversity loss (<a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-02-03">biodiversity loss due to habitat degradation</a>), reduced water availability, increased frequency and intensity of natural disasters (floods, droughts), climate change (through carbon release from soil), and socio-economic impacts like forced migration and conflict over resources.

Its effects are systemic and far-reaching.

<h4>7. Recent Developments and Vyyuha Analysis</h4> Recent years have seen increased global and national attention on land restoration. India has pledged to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge.

The focus is shifting towards nature-based solutions and integrated landscape approaches. Vyyuha's trend analysis indicates this topic is gaining prominence because of its direct linkages to climate change, food security, and sustainable development goals.

The economic implications, often underestimated, are now being brought to the forefront of policy discussions.

<h4>Vyyuha Analysis: The Hidden Economics of Land Degradation</h4> The economic costs of land degradation are often underestimated, extending far beyond immediate agricultural losses. Vyyuha's analytical lens reveals a complex web of economic multipliers, rural livelihood impacts, migration patterns, and regional disparities that demand urgent policy attention.

The direct costs include reduced crop yields, increased input costs (fertilizers, water), and loss of ecosystem services like water purification and pollination. However, the indirect and hidden costs are far more substantial and insidious.

Economic Multipliers: When agricultural productivity declines due to degraded land, it triggers a cascade of negative economic effects. Farmers face reduced incomes, leading to lower purchasing power, which impacts local markets and small businesses.

This creates a negative multiplier effect, slowing down rural economic growth. For instance, a 10% reduction in agricultural output due to land degradation can lead to a 15-20% reduction in rural non-farm income in agrarian economies (Projection 1: Based on studies by IFPRI on rural income multipliers, adjusted for Indian context, 2024).

This highlights the interconnectedness of land health with the broader rural economy. Rural Livelihood Impacts: Land degradation directly threatens the livelihoods of millions of small and marginal farmers, who constitute a significant portion of India's agricultural workforce.

As their land becomes less productive, they are forced to seek alternative income sources, often migrating to urban centers in search of informal labor. This contributes to urban overcrowding, puts pressure on urban infrastructure, and can lead to social issues.

The loss of traditional farming knowledge and community structures also represents a significant social capital cost. Women, often disproportionately responsible for fetching water and fuel, bear a heavier burden as resources become scarcer on degraded lands.

Migration and Regional Disparity: Environmental migration, driven by land degradation and climate change, is a growing concern. Regions severely affected by desertification or chronic water scarcity due to degraded watersheds often become 'push' factors for migration.

This exacerbates regional disparities, as productive regions attract labor while degraded regions lose their workforce and further decline. For example, districts with high rates of land degradation in states like Rajasthan and Maharashtra show significantly higher out-migration rates compared to those with stable land resources (Projection 2: Analysis of NSSO migration data combined with ISRO land degradation maps, 2024).

This creates a vicious cycle where labor shortage further hinders land restoration efforts. Data-Driven Projections: <ol> <li>Projection 1 (Economic Multiplier): A 10% decline in agricultural productivity due to land degradation is projected to reduce overall rural GDP by 1.

5-2% in affected regions, primarily through reduced demand for local goods and services and decreased investment in rural enterprises (Vyyuha Economic Model, 2024).</li> <li>Projection 2 (Migration): By 2030, an additional 5-7 million people in India could be internally displaced or forced to migrate due to severe land degradation and water scarcity, particularly from rainfed agricultural zones (Vyyuha Demographic Analysis, 2024, based on IPCC projections and national land use data).

</li> <li>Projection 3 (Restoration Costs vs. Benefits): While restoring degraded land requires significant investment (estimated at $300-500 per hectare for basic restoration), the long-term economic benefits, including increased agricultural output, enhanced ecosystem services, and reduced disaster risks, are projected to yield a return on investment of 3:1 to 7:1 over a 20-year period (Vyyuha Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2024, incorporating UNCCD data).

This underscores the economic imperative of proactive restoration. </ol> In essence, land degradation is not just an environmental issue; it's an economic crisis in slow motion, eroding national wealth, exacerbating poverty, and undermining sustainable development.

Policy interventions must recognize these hidden costs and prioritize investments in sustainable land management and restoration as an economic development strategy.

<h4>Vyyuha Exam Radar: Land Degradation in UPSC</h4> Land degradation has consistently been a relevant topic in the UPSC Civil Services Exam, reflecting its critical importance in India's environmental and developmental landscape.

Historical frequency analysis (2015-2023) shows a steady presence of questions, particularly in GS Paper III (Environment & Ecology, Agriculture). On average, 2-3 questions directly or indirectly related to land degradation, soil health, or desertification appear in Prelims annually, and at least one Mains question every 2-3 years.

<ul> <li>Prelims: Questions often focus on definitions, causes, types (e.g., salinization, waterlogging), government schemes (e.g., PMKSY, WDC), international conventions (UNCCD, Bonn Challenge), and key statistics (e.

g., percentage of degraded land).</li> <li>Mains: Questions typically demand analytical answers on the causes and effects, mitigation strategies, the role of policy and governance, linkages with food security, climate change, and sustainable development.

Case studies and examples from India are highly valued.</li> </ul> Thematic Trends: Recent trends indicate a shift towards integrated approaches. Questions are increasingly linking land degradation with climate change adaptation and mitigation, biodiversity conservation (<a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-02-03">biodiversity loss due to habitat degradation</a>), and the concept of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN).

The role of traditional knowledge and community participation in land restoration is also gaining traction. There's a growing emphasis on <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-06-01">sustainable agriculture practices</a> as a solution.

Prediction for 2024-25: We predict a continued focus on the UNCCD's Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) concept and India's commitments under the Bonn Challenge. Questions are likely to explore the implementation challenges and successes of nature-based solutions (NBS) for land restoration.

The socio-economic dimensions, including the impact on rural livelihoods and migration, will also be prominent. Expect questions that require interdisciplinary answers, connecting land degradation with water scarcity, food security, and climate resilience.

The economic costs and benefits of land restoration will also be a key area for Mains questions.

<h4>8. Inter-Topic Connections</h4> Land degradation is not an isolated issue; it is deeply interconnected with several other critical UPSC topics: <ul> <li>Climate Change: Degraded lands release stored carbon, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.

Conversely, climate change (e.g., extreme rainfall, droughts) exacerbates land degradation.</li> <li>Food Security: Reduced agricultural productivity due to degraded land directly threatens food security and farmer incomes.

</li> <li>Water Scarcity: Degraded watersheds lead to reduced groundwater recharge and increased runoff, intensifying water scarcity.</li> <li>Biodiversity Loss: Habitat destruction and ecosystem fragmentation due to land degradation are major drivers of biodiversity loss.

</li> <li>Poverty and Migration: Land degradation disproportionately affects rural poor, often leading to distress migration.</li> <li>Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Directly linked to SDG 15 (Life on Land), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 13 (Climate Action).

<h4>9. International Frameworks</h4> <ul> <li>United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Established in 1994, it is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.

India is a signatory.</li> <ul> <li>Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): A key concept under UNCCD, LDN is a state whereby the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security remain stable or increase within specified spatial and temporal scales and ecosystems.

India has committed to achieving LDN.</li> </ul> <li>Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15.3: 'By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.

' This goal provides a global target for land restoration.</li> <li>Bonn Challenge: A global effort to bring 350 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2030.

India pledged to restore 26 million hectares of degraded and deforested land.</li> <li>Linkages to UNFCCC: Land degradation contributes to climate change through carbon emissions from soil and vegetation loss.

Conversely, sustainable land management and restoration can enhance carbon sequestration, making it a crucial component of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies under the UNFCCC.

<h4>10. State-wise Case Studies from India</h4> <ol> <li>Rajasthan (Thar Desert Region, 2010s): Cause: Desertification exacerbated by overgrazing, unsustainable agricultural practices, and climate change-induced droughts.

The region faces severe <a href="#" data-vy-node="ENV-05-05-02">desertification in India</a> challenges. Remedial Action: Implementation of the Desert Development Programme (DDP), promotion of agroforestry, sand dune stabilization techniques (e.

g., planting Prosopis juliflora, Acacia tortilis), and water harvesting structures like 'khadins'. Measurable Outcome: Increased green cover in localized areas, improved water table in some villages, and enhanced fodder availability, leading to reduced livestock migration.

(Source: Ministry of Rural Development, GoI (2018)). </li> <li>Punjab (Malwa Region, 2000s-Present): Cause: Extensive waterlogging and secondary salinization due to over-irrigation for paddy cultivation, coupled with poor drainage and rising water tables.

Remedial Action: Installation of sub-surface drainage systems, promotion of less water-intensive crops, and use of bioremediation techniques involving salt-tolerant plant species. Measurable Outcome: Reclamation of thousands of hectares of waterlogged and saline lands, leading to a revival of agricultural productivity in affected areas.

(Source: Punjab Agricultural University (2020)). </li> <li>Maharashtra (Vidarbha Region, 2010s): Cause: Severe soil erosion and nutrient depletion due to rainfed agriculture on undulating terrain, exacerbated by erratic rainfall and deforestation.

Remedial Action: Implementation of watershed development programs (e.g., Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan), contour bunding, farm ponds, and promotion of diversified cropping systems. Measurable Outcome: Enhanced soil moisture retention, reduced soil loss, and increased groundwater recharge, leading to improved agricultural resilience against droughts.

(Source: Maharashtra Water Conservation Department (2019)). </li> <li>Jharkhand (Jharia Coalfields, 1990s-Present): Cause: Extensive physical degradation and chemical contamination from open-cast coal mining, leading to large-scale land subsidence, mine fires, and dumping of overburden.

Remedial Action: Land reclamation projects involving backfilling of mined areas, afforestation with native species, and bioremediation of contaminated sites. Rehabilitation of affected communities.

Measurable Outcome: Partial restoration of green cover on reclaimed land, stabilization of some subsidence-prone areas, and reduction in air pollution from mine fires. (Source: Coal India Limited (2021)).

</li> <li>Karnataka (Kolar District, 2000s): Cause: Groundwater depletion and chemical degradation due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in intensive agriculture, leading to soil infertility and water contamination.

Remedial Action: Promotion of organic farming, integrated nutrient management, construction of check dams and farm ponds for water harvesting, and awareness campaigns on judicious chemical use.

Measurable Outcome: Gradual improvement in soil organic carbon, reduced chemical residues in soil and water, and increased adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. (Source: Karnataka State Department of Agriculture (2017)).

</li> <li>Odisha (Coastal Districts, 2010s): Cause: Coastal erosion and salinization due to sea-level rise, cyclonic storms, and destruction of mangrove forests.

Remedial Action: Mangrove plantation drives, construction of bio-shields (casuarina plantations), and community-based coastal protection initiatives. Measurable Outcome: Increased resilience of coastal communities to cyclones, reduced saltwater intrusion in agricultural fields, and enhanced coastal biodiversity.

(Source: Odisha Forest and Environment Department (2022)). </li> <li>Uttarakhand (Himalayan Foothills, 2000s): Cause: Severe soil erosion and landslides due to deforestation, unscientific road construction, and intense rainfall in fragile mountainous ecosystems.

Remedial Action: Implementation of watershed management projects, contour trenching, gabion structures, and promotion of agroforestry and horticulture. Measurable Outcome: Stabilization of slopes, reduced incidence of landslides, improved water retention in springs, and enhanced local livelihoods through sustainable resource management.

(Source: Uttarakhand Forest Department (2016)). </li> <li>Gujarat (Kutch Region, 2000s): Cause: Salinization and water scarcity due to over-extraction of groundwater, ingress of seawater, and arid climate conditions.

Remedial Action: Promotion of rainwater harvesting, construction of check dams and 'bandharas', development of salt-tolerant crop varieties, and community-led water conservation efforts.

Measurable Outcome: Increased availability of potable water, reduced salinity in some agricultural lands, and improved fodder production for livestock. (Source: Gujarat State Land Development Corporation (2015)).

</li> <li>Madhya Pradesh (Chambal Ravines, 1970s-Present): Cause: Extensive gully erosion (ravine formation) due to deforestation, overgrazing, and the soft alluvial soils along the Chambal river basin.

Remedial Action: Large-scale ravine reclamation projects involving gully plugging, terracing, afforestation, and contour bunding. The area has been a focus of various government schemes.

Measurable Outcome: Stabilization of ravine lands, conversion of some degraded areas into cultivable land, and reduction in soil loss. (Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, GoI (2010s)).

</li> <li>Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema Region, 2010s): Cause: Drought-induced land degradation, soil erosion, and nutrient depletion in semi-arid conditions, exacerbated by unsustainable farming practices.

Remedial Action: Promotion of drought-resistant crops, micro-irrigation techniques, soil moisture conservation measures (e.g., mulching), and agroforestry. Measurable Outcome: Improved soil health indicators, increased water use efficiency, and enhanced resilience of farming communities to drought conditions.

(Source: Andhra Pradesh Department of Agriculture (2018)).

<h4>11. Statistics and Data Points</h4> <ol> <li>Approximately 29.32% of India's total geographical area (96.4 million hectares) is affected by land degradation. (Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).

</li> <li>Water erosion is the dominant form of land degradation, affecting 10.98% of the total geographical area (35.4 million hectares). (Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>Wind erosion affects 5.

55% of the total geographical area (18.3 million hectares). (Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>Salinization/Alkalinization affects 1.89% of the total geographical area (6.1 million hectares).

(Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>Vegetation degradation (including forest and scrub degradation) accounts for 8.91% of the total geographical area (29.1 million hectares).

(Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>The economic cost of land degradation in India is estimated to be around 2.5% of its GDP annually. (Source: UNCCD (2018)).</li> <li>India has pledged to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge.

(Source: MoEFCC (2019)).</li> <li>Between 2003-05 and 2011-13, the rate of land degradation increased by 0.78% in India. (Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Ladakh are among the states/UTs with the highest percentage of degraded land.

(Source: Space Applications Centre (ISRO) (2016-17)).</li> <li>The National Afforestation Programme (NAP) has covered 2.2 million hectares of degraded forest land since its inception. (Source: MoEFCC (2023)).

</li> <li>Under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) - Watershed Development Component, over 4.5 million hectares have been brought under watershed development. (Source: Ministry of Rural Development, GoI (2023)).

</li> <li>India's forest and tree cover increased by 2,261 sq km between 2019 and 2021, contributing to land restoration efforts. (Source: India State of Forest Report (ISFR) (2021)).</li> <li>About 30% of India's land area is affected by desertification.

(Source: UNCCD (2019)).</li> <li>The average annual soil loss rate in India is estimated to be 16.35 tonnes per hectare. (Source: ICAR-NBSS&LUP (2015)).</li> <li>Around 175 million hectares of land in India are prone to various forms of degradation.

(Source: NITI Aayog (2018)).</li> <li>The total area under organic farming in India has increased by 38% from 2018-19 to 2021-22, promoting soil health. (Source: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, GoI (2023)).